For decades, national and local U.S. law enforcement agencies have sent officers to Israel to learn new policing and counterterrorism tactics, which some participants said were too potent to be implemented at home: monitoring telecommunications and scraping internet content to decide whom to arrest; mining health records and location data to track others down; photographing civilians on the street to determine whether they should be questioned; and shooting them with impunity.

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Nonetheless, DHS increasingly emulated Israeli surveillance and targeting methods, and ICE has come to operate more like a military unit than an immigration enforcement body. In recent years, ICE has contracted with data brokers that amassed information from Departments of Motor Vehicles, social media platforms, and border crossings, to compile unregulated databases of human behavior. In addition to individuals’ travel histories, professional background, and family relationships, this data has also encompassed travel histories logged through clandestine networks of license plate scanners and facial recognition cameras.